Stephen Krashen's Theory of Second Language Acquisition Natural
"Language acquisition does not require extensive use of conscious grammatical rules, and does not require tedious drill." Stephen Krashen
"Language acquisition does not require extensive use of conscious grammatical rules, and does not require tedious drill." Stephen Krashen
- "Acquisition requires meaningful interaction in the target language - natural communication - in which speakers are concerned not with the form of their utterances but with the messages they are conveying and understanding." Stephen Krashen
"The best methods are therefore those that supply 'comprehensible input' in low anxiety situations, containing messages that students really want to hear. These methods do not force early production in the second language, but allow students to produce when they are 'ready', recognizing that improvement comes from supplying communicative and comprehensible input, and not from forcing and correcting production." Stephen Krashen
"In the real world, conversations with sympathetic native speakers who are willing to help the acquirer understand are very helpful."Stephen Krashen
Introduction
Stephen Krashen (University of Southern California) is an expert in the field of linguistics, specializing in theories of language acquisition and development. Much of his recent research has involved the study of non-English and bilingual language acquisition. During the past 20 years, he has published well over 100 books and articles and has been invited to deliver over 300 lectures at universities throughout the United States and Canada.
This is a brief description of Krashen's widely known and well accepted theory of second language acquisition, which has had a large impact in all areas of second language research and teaching since the 1980s.
Description of Krashen's Theory of Second Language Acquisition
Krashen's theory of second language acquisition consists of five main hypotheses:- the Acquisition-Learning hypothesis,
- the Monitor hypothesis,
- the Natural Order hypothesis,
- the Input hypothesis,
- and the Affective Filter hypothesis.
The 'learned system' or 'learning' is the product of formal instruction and it comprises a conscious process which results in conscious knowledge 'about' the language, for example knowledge of grammar rules. According to Krashen 'learning' is less important than 'acquisition'. (Veja o texto ao lado e também outra página em português sobreAcquisition/Learning).
The Monitor hypothesis explains the relationship between acquisition and learning and defines the influence of the latter on the former. The monitoring function is the practical result of the learned grammar. According to Krashen, the acquisition system is the utterance initiator, while the learning system performs the role of the 'monitor' or the 'editor'. The 'monitor' acts in a planning, editing and correcting function when three specific conditions are met: that is, the second language learner has sufficient time at his/her disposal, he/she focuses on form or thinks about correctness, and he/she knows the rule.
It appears that the role of conscious learning is somewhat limited in second language performance. According to Krashen, the role of the monitor is - or should be - minor, being used only to correct deviations from 'normal' speech and to give speech a more 'polished' appearance.
Krashen also suggests that there is individual variation among language learners with regard to 'monitor' use. He distinguishes those learners that use the 'monitor' all the time (over-users); those learners who have not learned or who prefer not to use their conscious knowledge (under-users); and those learners that use the 'monitor' appropriately (optimal users). An evaluation of the person's psychological profile can help to determine to what group they belong. Usually extroverts are under-users, while introverts and perfectionists are over-users. Lack of self-confidence is frequently related to the over-use of the 'monitor'.
The Natural Order hypothesis is based on research findings (Dulay & Burt, 1974; Fathman, 1975; Makino, 1980 cited in Krashen, 1987) which suggested that the acquisition of grammatical structures follows a 'natural order' which is predictable. For a given language, some grammatical structures tend to be acquired early while others late. This order seemed to be independent of the learners' age, L1 background, conditions of exposure, and although the agreement between individual acquirers was not always 100% in the studies, there were statistically significant similarities that reinforced the existence of a Natural Order of language acquisition. Krashen however points out that the implication of the natural order hypothesis is not that a language program syllabus should be based on the order found in the studies. In fact, he rejects grammatical sequencing when the goal is language acquisition.
The Input hypothesis is Krashen's attempt to explain how the learner acquires a second language. In other words, this hypothesis is Krashen's explanation of how second language acquisition takes place. So, the Input hypothesis is only concerned with 'acquisition', not 'learning'. According to this hypothesis, the learner improves and progresses along the 'natural order' when he/she receives second language 'input' that is one step beyond his/her current stage of linguistic competence. For example, if a learner is at a stage 'i', then acquisition takes place when he/she is exposed to 'Comprehensible Input' that belongs to level 'i + 1'. Since not all of the learners can be at the same level of linguistic competence at the same time, Krashen suggests that natural communicative input is the key to designing a syllabus, ensuring in this way that each learner will receive some 'i + 1' input that is appropriate for his/her current stage of linguistic competence.
Finally, the fifth hypothesis, the Affective Filter hypothesis, embodies Krashen's view that a number of 'affective variables' play a facilitative, but non-causal, role in second language acquisition. These variables include: motivation, self-confidence and anxiety. Krashen claims that learners with high motivation, self-confidence, a good self-image, and a low level of anxiety are better equipped for success in second language acquisition. Low motivation, low self-esteem, and debilitating anxiety can combine to 'raise' the affective filter and form a 'mental block' that prevents comprehensible input from being used for acquisition. In other words, when the filter is 'up' it impedes language acquisition. On the other hand, positive affect is necessary, but not sufficient on its own, for acquisition to take place.
REFERENCES
Crystal, David The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge University Press, 1997.
Krashen, Stephen D. Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. Prentice-Hall International, 1987.
Krashen, Stephen D. Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning. Prentice-Hall International, 1988.
The Theory of Multiple-Intelligence
“An intelligence is the ability to solve problems,
orto create products, that are valued within
one or more cultural settings.”
-- Howard Gardner
FRAMES OF MIND (1983)
Many of us are familiar with three general categories in which people learn:
visual learners, auditory learners, and kinesthetic learners. Beyond these three
general categories, many theories of and approaches toward human potential
have been developed. Among them is the theory of multiple intelligences,
developed by Howard Gardner, Ph.D., Professor of Education at Harvard University.
Gardner’s early work in psychology and later in human cognition and human potential led to the development of the initial six intelligence. Today there are
nine intelligence and the possibility of others may eventually expand the list.
These intelligence (or competencies) relate to a person’s unique aptitude set of
capabilities and ways they might prefer to demonstrate intellectual abilities.
Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence
(“word smart” or “book smart”)
This intelligence involves the knowing which comes through language; through reading, writing,
and speaking. It involves understanding the order and meaning of words in both speech and
writing and how to properly use the language. It involves understanding the sociocultural
nuances of a language, including idioms, plays on words, and linguistically-based humor.
If this is a strong intelligence for you, you have highly developed skills for reading, speaking, and
writing and you tend to think in words. You probably like various kinds of literature, playing word
games, making up poetry and stories, engaging in involved discussions with other people,
debating, formal speaking, creative writing, and telling jokes. You are likely precise in expressing
yourself and irritated when others are not! You love learning new words, you do well with written
assignments, and your comprehension of anything you read is high.
Mathematical-Logical Intelligence
(“math smart” or “logic smart”)
This intelligence uses numbers, math, and logic to find and understand the various patterns that
occur in our lives: thought patterns, number patterns, visual patterns, color patters, and so on. It
begins with concrete patterns in the real world but gets increasingly abstract as we try to
understand relationships of the patterns we have seen.
If you happen to be a logical-mathematically inclined person you tend to think more conceptually
and abstractly and are often able to see patterns and relationships that others miss. You probably
like to conduct experiments, to solve puzzles and other problems, to ask cosmic questions, and
analyze circumstances and people’s behavior. You most likely enjoy working with numbers and
mathematical formulas and operations, and you love the challenge of a complex problem to solve.
You are probably systematic and organized, and you likely always have a logicalrationale or
argument for what you are doing or thinking at any given time.
Visual-Spatial Intelligence
(“art smart” or “picture smart”)
We often say “A picture is worth a thousand words!” or “Seeing is believing!” This intelligence
represents the knowing that occurs through the shapes, images, patterns, designs, and textures
we see with our external eyes, but also includes all of the images we are able to conjure inside our
heads.
If you are strong in this intelligence you tend to think in images and pictures. You are likely very
aware of object, shapes, colors, textures, and patterns in the environment around you. You
probably like to draw, paint, and make interesting designs and patterns, and work with clay,2
colored markers, construction paper, and fabric. Many who are strong in visual-spatial
intelligence love to work jigsaw puzzles,read maps and find their way around new places. You
probably have definite opinions about colors that go together well, textures that are appropriate
and pleasing, and how a room should be decorated. And, you are likely excellent at performing
tasks thatrequire “seeing with the mind’s eyes,” such as visualizing, pretending, imagining, and
forming mental images.
Intrapersonal Intelligence (“self smart” or “introspection smart”)
At the heart of this intelligence are our human selfreflective abilities by which we can step outside of ourselves and think about our own lives. This
is the introspective intelligence. It involves our uniquely human propensity to want to know the
meaning, purpose, and significance of things. It involves our awareness of the inner world of the
self, emotions, values, beliefs, and our various quests for genuine spirituality.
If this intelligence is one of your strong points you may like to work alone and sometimes you
may shy away from others. You are probably self-reflective and self-aware and thus you tend to be
in tune with your innerfeelings, values, beliefs, and thinking processes. You are frequently
bearers of creative wisdom and insight, are highly intuitive, and you are inwardly motivated rather
than needing externalrewards to keep you going. You are often strong willed, self-confident, and
have definite, well-thought out opinions on almost any issue. Other people will often come to you
for advice and counsel.
Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence ("body smart" or "movement smart")
We often talk about “learning by doing.” This way of knowing happens through physical
movement and through the knowing of our physical body. The body “knows” many things that are
not necessarily known by the conscious, logical mind, such as how to ride a bike, how to parallel
park a car, dance the waltz, catch a thrown object, maintain balance while walking, and where the
keys are on a computer keyboard.
If you have strength in this intelligence area you tend to have a keen sense of body awareness.
You like physical movement, dancing, making and inventing things with your hands, and roleplaying. You probably communicate well through body language and other physical gestures. You
can often perform a task much better after seeing someone else do it first and then mimicking
their actions. You probably like physical games of all kinds and you like to demonstrate how to do
something for someone else. You may find it difficult to sit still for long periods of time and are
easily bored or distracted if you are not actively involved in what is going on around you.
Interpersonal (“people smart” or “group smart”)
This is the person-to-person way of knowing. It is the knowing that happens when we work with
and relate to other people, often as part of a team. This way of knowing also asks use to develop a
whole range of social skills that are needed for effective person-to-person communication and
relating.
If this person-to-person way of knowing is more developed in you, you learn through personal
interactions. You probably have lots of friends, show a great deal of empathy for other people and
exhibit a deep understanding of other points of view. You probably love team activities of all kinds
and are a good team member--you “pull your own weight” and often much more! You are
sensitive to other people’s feelings and ideas, and are good at piggybacking your ideas on others’
thoughts. And you are likely skilled at drawing others out in a discussion. You are also probably
skilled in conflict resolution, mediation, and finding compromise when people are in radical
opposition to each other.
Existential Intelligence
Sensitivity and capacity to tackle deep questions about human existence, such as the meaning of life, why do we die, and how did we get here.
“An intelligence is the ability to solve problems,
orto create products, that are valued within
one or more cultural settings.”
-- Howard Gardner
FRAMES OF MIND (1983)
Many of us are familiar with three general categories in which people learn:
visual learners, auditory learners, and kinesthetic learners. Beyond these three
general categories, many theories of and approaches toward human potential
have been developed. Among them is the theory of multiple intelligences,
developed by Howard Gardner, Ph.D., Professor of Education at Harvard University.
Gardner’s early work in psychology and later in human cognition and human potential led to the development of the initial six intelligence. Today there are
nine intelligence and the possibility of others may eventually expand the list.
These intelligence (or competencies) relate to a person’s unique aptitude set of
capabilities and ways they might prefer to demonstrate intellectual abilities.
Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence
(“word smart” or “book smart”)
This intelligence involves the knowing which comes through language; through reading, writing,
and speaking. It involves understanding the order and meaning of words in both speech and
writing and how to properly use the language. It involves understanding the sociocultural
nuances of a language, including idioms, plays on words, and linguistically-based humor.
If this is a strong intelligence for you, you have highly developed skills for reading, speaking, and
writing and you tend to think in words. You probably like various kinds of literature, playing word
games, making up poetry and stories, engaging in involved discussions with other people,
debating, formal speaking, creative writing, and telling jokes. You are likely precise in expressing
yourself and irritated when others are not! You love learning new words, you do well with written
assignments, and your comprehension of anything you read is high.
Mathematical-Logical Intelligence
(“math smart” or “logic smart”)
This intelligence uses numbers, math, and logic to find and understand the various patterns that
occur in our lives: thought patterns, number patterns, visual patterns, color patters, and so on. It
begins with concrete patterns in the real world but gets increasingly abstract as we try to
understand relationships of the patterns we have seen.
If you happen to be a logical-mathematically inclined person you tend to think more conceptually
and abstractly and are often able to see patterns and relationships that others miss. You probably
like to conduct experiments, to solve puzzles and other problems, to ask cosmic questions, and
analyze circumstances and people’s behavior. You most likely enjoy working with numbers and
mathematical formulas and operations, and you love the challenge of a complex problem to solve.
You are probably systematic and organized, and you likely always have a logicalrationale or
argument for what you are doing or thinking at any given time.
Visual-Spatial Intelligence
(“art smart” or “picture smart”)
We often say “A picture is worth a thousand words!” or “Seeing is believing!” This intelligence
represents the knowing that occurs through the shapes, images, patterns, designs, and textures
we see with our external eyes, but also includes all of the images we are able to conjure inside our
heads.
If you are strong in this intelligence you tend to think in images and pictures. You are likely very
aware of object, shapes, colors, textures, and patterns in the environment around you. You
probably like to draw, paint, and make interesting designs and patterns, and work with clay,2
colored markers, construction paper, and fabric. Many who are strong in visual-spatial
intelligence love to work jigsaw puzzles,read maps and find their way around new places. You
probably have definite opinions about colors that go together well, textures that are appropriate
and pleasing, and how a room should be decorated. And, you are likely excellent at performing
tasks thatrequire “seeing with the mind’s eyes,” such as visualizing, pretending, imagining, and
forming mental images.
Intrapersonal Intelligence (“self smart” or “introspection smart”)
At the heart of this intelligence are our human selfreflective abilities by which we can step outside of ourselves and think about our own lives. This
is the introspective intelligence. It involves our uniquely human propensity to want to know the
meaning, purpose, and significance of things. It involves our awareness of the inner world of the
self, emotions, values, beliefs, and our various quests for genuine spirituality.
If this intelligence is one of your strong points you may like to work alone and sometimes you
may shy away from others. You are probably self-reflective and self-aware and thus you tend to be
in tune with your innerfeelings, values, beliefs, and thinking processes. You are frequently
bearers of creative wisdom and insight, are highly intuitive, and you are inwardly motivated rather
than needing externalrewards to keep you going. You are often strong willed, self-confident, and
have definite, well-thought out opinions on almost any issue. Other people will often come to you
for advice and counsel.
Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence ("body smart" or "movement smart")
We often talk about “learning by doing.” This way of knowing happens through physical
movement and through the knowing of our physical body. The body “knows” many things that are
not necessarily known by the conscious, logical mind, such as how to ride a bike, how to parallel
park a car, dance the waltz, catch a thrown object, maintain balance while walking, and where the
keys are on a computer keyboard.
If you have strength in this intelligence area you tend to have a keen sense of body awareness.
You like physical movement, dancing, making and inventing things with your hands, and roleplaying. You probably communicate well through body language and other physical gestures. You
can often perform a task much better after seeing someone else do it first and then mimicking
their actions. You probably like physical games of all kinds and you like to demonstrate how to do
something for someone else. You may find it difficult to sit still for long periods of time and are
easily bored or distracted if you are not actively involved in what is going on around you.
Interpersonal (“people smart” or “group smart”)
This is the person-to-person way of knowing. It is the knowing that happens when we work with
and relate to other people, often as part of a team. This way of knowing also asks use to develop a
whole range of social skills that are needed for effective person-to-person communication and
relating.
If this person-to-person way of knowing is more developed in you, you learn through personal
interactions. You probably have lots of friends, show a great deal of empathy for other people and
exhibit a deep understanding of other points of view. You probably love team activities of all kinds
and are a good team member--you “pull your own weight” and often much more! You are
sensitive to other people’s feelings and ideas, and are good at piggybacking your ideas on others’
thoughts. And you are likely skilled at drawing others out in a discussion. You are also probably
skilled in conflict resolution, mediation, and finding compromise when people are in radical
opposition to each other.
Existential Intelligence
Sensitivity and capacity to tackle deep questions about human existence, such as the meaning of life, why do we die, and how did we get here.